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Die Seite wurde neu angelegt: „{{NYT en}} Although it was once claimed that the human foreskin was filthy and harbored disease and infection, in reality the opposite is true. The foreski…“
{{NYT en}}
Although it was once claimed that the human foreskin was filthy and harbored disease and infection, in reality the opposite is true. The [[foreskin]] is designed by nature to be self cleaning and to provide significant natural '''immunological and protective function''' against all types of infection, including HIV.
== The protective and hygienic function of the foreskin ==
The foreskin, like the eyelid, also serves an important protective and hygienic function. The foreskin protects the delicate [[glans]] of the [[penis]] and puts the urethra at a distance form its environment, protecting it from foreign contaminants of all kinds while simultaneously shielding the penis from injury. It is a double fold of skin which offers two layers of protection.
Natural secretions of oil are achieved by sebaceous glands which are abound in the foreskin's inner lining, these are not present in the [[glans penis]].<ref name="hyman-brownstein1969">{{REFjournal
|last=Hyman
|first=A.B.
|last2=Brownstein
|first2=M.H.
|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/530842
|title=Tyson's "glands": ectopic sebaceous glands and papillomatosis penis
|journal=Arch Dermatol
|date=1969-01
|volume=99
|issue=1
|pages=31-36
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> They are also present in the eye lid and perform the same function in both places. They secrete the oils necessary to keep the glans surface soft, moist, smooth, warm, sensitive, and with a healthy glistening red or purple color. This moisturizer also maintains PH balance, and optimal cleanliness. This is required to keep the surface of the glans healthy and clean via the cleaning effects of mucous secretions. Again, this function is analogous to the eye lid. The glans penis is meant to be an internal organ covered and protected from the outside world.
In the genitally intact penis the urine stream flushes out the urethra and foreskin of foreign microbes. In healthy individuals, urine is sterile and has a disinfectant quality. Researchers have demonstrated that the swirling action of urine as it rushes through the foreskin flushes it out effortlessly and naturally.<ref name="parkash-jeykumar1973">{{REFjournal
|last=Parkash
|first=S.
|last2=Jeykumar
|first2=S.
|last3=Subramanyan
|first3=K.
|last4=Chaudhuri
|first4=S.
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/parkash/
|title=Human subpreputial collection: its nature and formation
|journal=J Urol
|date=1973-08
|volume=110
|issue=2
|pages=211-212
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref>
Though urine passes through the foreskin every day, the inner foreskin is remarkably free of urea — a by-product of liver metabolism that is secreted in urine. Studies demonstrate that washings from the foreskin are rich in fructose, acid phosphatase, and mucin, but never urea. It appears that the secretions of seminal vesicles, prostate, and urethral mucous glands, collectively or individually, keep the foreskin clear and clean as well.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Parkash
|first=S.
|title=Penis: some facts and fancies
|journal=Journal of Physician's Association of Madras
|date=1982-06
|pages=1-13
}}</ref>
At birth, the foreskin is usually attached to the glans (head) of the penis by a [[synechia]], akin to how a fingernail is attached to a finger.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Deibert
|first=G.A.
|author-link=
|title=The separation of the prepuce in the human penis
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/deibert/
|journal=Anatomical Record
|date=1993-11
|volume=57
|issue=4
|pages=387-399
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> The preputial cavity is sealed by the synechia so it cannot be infected.
In infancy, the foreskin's tubular neck (prepucial orifice) is often long and narrow while the sphincter muscle in the tip of the foreskin keeps its opening closed. This acts as an extension of the urethra.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Hunter
|first=R.H.
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1249280/pdf/janat00534-0090.pdf
|title=Notes on the development of the prepuce
|journal=Journal of Anatomy
|date=1935-10
|volume=70
|issue=1
|pages=6875
|format=PDF
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Glenister
|first=T.W.
|title=A consideration of their process involved in the development of the prepuce in man
|journal=Br J Urol
|date=1956-09
|volume=28
|issue=3
|pages=243-249
}}</ref>
Together, these properties prevent the entry of contaminants.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998">{{REFjournal
|last=Fleiss
|first=P.
|author-link=Paul M. Fleiss
|last2=Hodges
|first2=F.
|author2-link=Frederick M. Hodges
|last3=Van Howe
|first3=R.S.
|author3-link=Robert S. Van Howe
|title=Immunological functions of the human prepuce
|journal=Sex Trans Infect
|date=1998-10
|volume=74
|issue=5
|pages=364-67
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1758142/pdf/v074p00364.pdf
|quote=
|pubmedID=10195034
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|accessdate=2019-10-15
}}</ref>
The idea that the foreskin is "dirty" or "unclean" is a scientifically unfounded superstition. The intact penis is naturally clean and maintains a level of hygiene that is optimal when compared to a penis that has been altered by circumcision.
In comparison, due to the open wounds and raw bleeding flesh, the circumcised penis needs much more care after circumcision. The surgically externalized glans is dirty rather then clean because of constant exposure to dirt, abrasion and contaminants.<ref name="vanhowe1997">{{REFjournal
|last=Van Howe
|first=R.S.
|author-link=Robert Van Howe
|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1464-410X.1997.00467.x
|title=Variability in penile appearance and penile findings: a prospective study
|journal=Br J Urol
|date=1997
|volume=80
|pages=776-782
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> Circumcised boys are also found to be more likely to develop balanitis, meatitis, coronal adhesions and meatal stenosis.<ref name="vanhowe1997"/>
== The immunological function of the foreskin ==
The foreskin's inner fold and the glans of the penis are comprised of [[Preputial mucosa| mucous membrane]] tissue. These are also present in your eyes, mouth, and all other bodily orifices including the female genitals. These are the first line of immunological defense for the body's orifices. These mucous membranes perform many immunological and hygienic functions.
Certain components such as [[Langerhans cells]],<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Weiss
|first=G.N.
|last2=Sanders
|first2=M.
|last3=Westbrook
|first3=K.C.
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16828878
|title=The distribution and density of Langerhans cells in the human prepuce: site of diminished immune response?
|journal=Isr J Med Sci
|date=1993-01
|volume=29
|issue=1
|pages=42-43
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> plasma cells,<ref name="flower1983">{{REFjournal
|last=Flower
|first=P.J.
|last2=Ladds
|first2=P.W.
|last3=Thomas
|first3=A.D.
|last4=Watson
|first4=D.L.
|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/030098588302000206
|title=An immunopathologic study on the bovine prepuce
|journal=Vet Pathol
|date=1983-03
|volume=20
|issue=2
|pages=189-201
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> apocrine glands,<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Ahmed
|first=A.
|last2=Jones
|first2=A.W.
|url=https://www.academia.edu/5687437/APOCRINE_CYSTADENOMA_A_REPORT_OF_TWO_CASES_OCCURRING_ON_THE_PREPUCE
|title=Apocrine Cystadenoma: a report of two cases occurring on the prepuce
|journal=Br J Dermatol
|date=1969-12
|volume=81
|issue=12
|pages=899-901
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> and sebaceous glands,<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Hyman
|first=A.B.
|last2=Brownstein
|first2=M.H.
|title=Tyson's "glands": ectopic sebaceous glands and papillomatosis penis
|journal=Arch Dermatol
|date=1969-01
|volume=99
|issue=1
|pages=31-36
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Delbanco
|first=E.
|title=Über das gehäufte Auftreten von freien Talgdrüsen an der Innenfläche des Präputiums
|trans-title=About the increased occurrence of free sebaceous glands on the inner surface of the prepuce
|language=German
|journal=Monatshefte für praktische Dermatologie
|date=1904
|volume=38
|pages=536-538
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Piccinno
|first=R.
|last2=Carrel
|first2=C.-F.
|last3=Menni
|first3=S.
|etal=yes
|title=sebacous glands mimicking molluscum contagiosum
|journal=Acta Derm Venerol
|date=1990
|volume=70
|pages=344-345
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Krompecher
|first=St.
|title=Die Histologie der Absonderung des Smegma praeputii
|trans-title=Histology of allocation of a smegma praeputii
|language=German
|journal=Anatomischer Anzeiger
|date=1932
|volume=75
|pages=170-176
}}</ref>, collectively secrete emollient lubricants.<ref name="parkash-jeykumar1973"/> Apocrine glands perform a crucial function by secreting enzymes such as lysosomal enzymes, cathepsin B, chymotrypsin, and neutrophil elastase.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Frohlich
|first=E.
|last2=Shamburg-Lever
|first2=G.
|last3=Klesses
|first3=C.
|title=Immunelectron microscopic localization of cathepsin B in human apocrine glands
|journal=J Cutan Pathol
|date=1993-02
|volume=20
|issue=1
|pages=54-60
}}</ref>
There is also some research to suggest that lysozyme may protect against HIV infection.<ref>{{REFweb
|first=George
|last=Hill
|author-link=George Hill
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/HIV/hill1/
|title=Summary of evidence that the foreskin and lysozyme may protect against HIV infection
|date=2003-09-07
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> <ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998" />
Apocrine glands also produce cytokine,<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Ahmed
|first=A.A.
|last2=Nordlind
|first2=K.
|last3=Schultzberd
|first3=M.
|last4=Liden
|first4=S.
|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01105803
|title=Immunohistochemical localization of IL-1 alpha-, IL-1 beta-, IL-6- and TNF-alpha-like immunoreactivities in human apocrine glands
|journal=Arch Dermatol Res
|date=1995
|volume=287
|issue=8
|pages=764-766
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> which is a very important non-antibody protein that generates immune response when in contact with specific agents. Plasma cells which increase in number in response to pathogens levels, secrete immunoglobulin.<ref name="flower1983"/>
It is also very important to note that Langerhans cells that are present in the foreskin produce ''Langerin'', a substance that has been proven to kill human immunodefiency viris (HIV) on contact.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=de Witte
|first=L.
|last2=Nabatov
|first2=A.
|last3=Pion
|first3=M.
|etal=yes
|url=http://www.cirp.org/news/healthday2007-03-05/
|title=Langerin is a natural barrier to HIV-1 transmission by Langerhans cells
|journal=Nat Med
|date=2007-03
|volume=13
|issue=3
|pages=367-371
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref>
All of these function to sequester and “digest” foreign pathogens. All these substances play an important role in protecting the penis from viral and bacterial pathogens. The immunological functions of the human prepuce have been extensively documented by respected researchers for quite some time.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998" />
<!--In infancy, simple sugars in breast milk, like antibacterial oligosaccharides, are acquired from the mother's milk and excreted in urine. University studies have shown that these substances cling to the mucosal lining of the inner foreskin and protect against urinary tract infections,<ref>Hanson LA, Karlsson B, Jalil F, ''et al''. Antiviral and antibacterial factors in human milk. In: Hanson LA, ed. ''Biology of Human Milk''. New York Raven Press; 1988. pp. 141-57</ref> as well as infections in other parts of the body.<ref>Coppa GV, Gabrielli O, Giorgi P, Catassi C, Montanari MP, Veraldo PE, Nichols BL. Preliminary study of breast feeding and bacterial adhesion to uroepithelial cells. ''Lancet'' 1990 Mar 10;335(8689):569-71.</ref> Babies excrete in their urine about 300-500 milligrams of oligosaccharides each day. These compounds prevent virulent strains of ''Escherichia coli'' from adhering to the mucosal lining of the entire urinary tract, including the foreskin and glans. For these reasons breast-milk is highly efficacious at preventing UTI.<ref>Gothefors L, Olling S, Winberg J. Breastfeeding and biological properties of faecal ''E. coli'' strains. ''Acta Paediatr Scand'' 1975 Nov;54(6):807-12.</ref> Rigorous studies have repeatedly demonstrated that breast feeding protects against urinary tract infections.<ref>Mårild S. Breastfeeding and Urinary Tract Infections. ''Lancet'' 1990;336:942.</ref> <ref>Pisacane A, ''et al''. Breastfeeding and urinary tract infection. ''The Lancet'', July 7, 1990, p50 </ref> <ref>Pisacane A, Graziano L, Mazzarella G, ''et al''. Breast-feeding and urinary tract infection. ''J Pediatr'' 1992;120:87-89.</ref>
Researchers have shown that premature foreskin retraction can expose the penis to hospital strains of ''Escherichia coli'' and can result in UTI.<ref>Winberg J ''et al''. The prepuce: A mistake of nature? ''Lancet'' 1989, pp.598-99.</ref> Hence the protective function of the foreskin is in the child's best interest, especially during chemically treated diaper wearing years where feces mixed with urine can not only contaminate the permanently exposed urinary meatus but also the amputation wound from the circumcision surgery itself.
It is important to note that women have a higher risk of UTI. This is because the shorter urethra offers less protection via the immunological function of the urethra's mucosal lining. By the same observation we see that the tubular tip of the foreskin and its mucosal lining act as an extension of the urethra, hence providing more of that same protection via mucosa immunology and the adherence of antibacterial substances in breast milk. Understandably, removal of the foreskin destroys all this functionality.-->
{{SEEALSO}}
* [[Circumcision and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)]]
{{REF}}
[[Kategorie:Physiologie]]
[[Kategorie:Immunologie]]
[[Kategorie:Vorhaut-Anatomie]]
[[Kategorie:Von Intactipedia]]
[[Kategorie:Von IntactWiki]]
[[en:Immunological and protective function of the foreskin]]
Although it was once claimed that the human foreskin was filthy and harbored disease and infection, in reality the opposite is true. The [[foreskin]] is designed by nature to be self cleaning and to provide significant natural '''immunological and protective function''' against all types of infection, including HIV.
== The protective and hygienic function of the foreskin ==
The foreskin, like the eyelid, also serves an important protective and hygienic function. The foreskin protects the delicate [[glans]] of the [[penis]] and puts the urethra at a distance form its environment, protecting it from foreign contaminants of all kinds while simultaneously shielding the penis from injury. It is a double fold of skin which offers two layers of protection.
Natural secretions of oil are achieved by sebaceous glands which are abound in the foreskin's inner lining, these are not present in the [[glans penis]].<ref name="hyman-brownstein1969">{{REFjournal
|last=Hyman
|first=A.B.
|last2=Brownstein
|first2=M.H.
|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/530842
|title=Tyson's "glands": ectopic sebaceous glands and papillomatosis penis
|journal=Arch Dermatol
|date=1969-01
|volume=99
|issue=1
|pages=31-36
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> They are also present in the eye lid and perform the same function in both places. They secrete the oils necessary to keep the glans surface soft, moist, smooth, warm, sensitive, and with a healthy glistening red or purple color. This moisturizer also maintains PH balance, and optimal cleanliness. This is required to keep the surface of the glans healthy and clean via the cleaning effects of mucous secretions. Again, this function is analogous to the eye lid. The glans penis is meant to be an internal organ covered and protected from the outside world.
In the genitally intact penis the urine stream flushes out the urethra and foreskin of foreign microbes. In healthy individuals, urine is sterile and has a disinfectant quality. Researchers have demonstrated that the swirling action of urine as it rushes through the foreskin flushes it out effortlessly and naturally.<ref name="parkash-jeykumar1973">{{REFjournal
|last=Parkash
|first=S.
|last2=Jeykumar
|first2=S.
|last3=Subramanyan
|first3=K.
|last4=Chaudhuri
|first4=S.
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/parkash/
|title=Human subpreputial collection: its nature and formation
|journal=J Urol
|date=1973-08
|volume=110
|issue=2
|pages=211-212
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref>
Though urine passes through the foreskin every day, the inner foreskin is remarkably free of urea — a by-product of liver metabolism that is secreted in urine. Studies demonstrate that washings from the foreskin are rich in fructose, acid phosphatase, and mucin, but never urea. It appears that the secretions of seminal vesicles, prostate, and urethral mucous glands, collectively or individually, keep the foreskin clear and clean as well.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Parkash
|first=S.
|title=Penis: some facts and fancies
|journal=Journal of Physician's Association of Madras
|date=1982-06
|pages=1-13
}}</ref>
At birth, the foreskin is usually attached to the glans (head) of the penis by a [[synechia]], akin to how a fingernail is attached to a finger.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Deibert
|first=G.A.
|author-link=
|title=The separation of the prepuce in the human penis
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/deibert/
|journal=Anatomical Record
|date=1993-11
|volume=57
|issue=4
|pages=387-399
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> The preputial cavity is sealed by the synechia so it cannot be infected.
In infancy, the foreskin's tubular neck (prepucial orifice) is often long and narrow while the sphincter muscle in the tip of the foreskin keeps its opening closed. This acts as an extension of the urethra.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Hunter
|first=R.H.
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1249280/pdf/janat00534-0090.pdf
|title=Notes on the development of the prepuce
|journal=Journal of Anatomy
|date=1935-10
|volume=70
|issue=1
|pages=6875
|format=PDF
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Glenister
|first=T.W.
|title=A consideration of their process involved in the development of the prepuce in man
|journal=Br J Urol
|date=1956-09
|volume=28
|issue=3
|pages=243-249
}}</ref>
Together, these properties prevent the entry of contaminants.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998">{{REFjournal
|last=Fleiss
|first=P.
|author-link=Paul M. Fleiss
|last2=Hodges
|first2=F.
|author2-link=Frederick M. Hodges
|last3=Van Howe
|first3=R.S.
|author3-link=Robert S. Van Howe
|title=Immunological functions of the human prepuce
|journal=Sex Trans Infect
|date=1998-10
|volume=74
|issue=5
|pages=364-67
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1758142/pdf/v074p00364.pdf
|quote=
|pubmedID=10195034
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|accessdate=2019-10-15
}}</ref>
The idea that the foreskin is "dirty" or "unclean" is a scientifically unfounded superstition. The intact penis is naturally clean and maintains a level of hygiene that is optimal when compared to a penis that has been altered by circumcision.
In comparison, due to the open wounds and raw bleeding flesh, the circumcised penis needs much more care after circumcision. The surgically externalized glans is dirty rather then clean because of constant exposure to dirt, abrasion and contaminants.<ref name="vanhowe1997">{{REFjournal
|last=Van Howe
|first=R.S.
|author-link=Robert Van Howe
|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1464-410X.1997.00467.x
|title=Variability in penile appearance and penile findings: a prospective study
|journal=Br J Urol
|date=1997
|volume=80
|pages=776-782
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> Circumcised boys are also found to be more likely to develop balanitis, meatitis, coronal adhesions and meatal stenosis.<ref name="vanhowe1997"/>
== The immunological function of the foreskin ==
The foreskin's inner fold and the glans of the penis are comprised of [[Preputial mucosa| mucous membrane]] tissue. These are also present in your eyes, mouth, and all other bodily orifices including the female genitals. These are the first line of immunological defense for the body's orifices. These mucous membranes perform many immunological and hygienic functions.
Certain components such as [[Langerhans cells]],<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Weiss
|first=G.N.
|last2=Sanders
|first2=M.
|last3=Westbrook
|first3=K.C.
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16828878
|title=The distribution and density of Langerhans cells in the human prepuce: site of diminished immune response?
|journal=Isr J Med Sci
|date=1993-01
|volume=29
|issue=1
|pages=42-43
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> plasma cells,<ref name="flower1983">{{REFjournal
|last=Flower
|first=P.J.
|last2=Ladds
|first2=P.W.
|last3=Thomas
|first3=A.D.
|last4=Watson
|first4=D.L.
|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/030098588302000206
|title=An immunopathologic study on the bovine prepuce
|journal=Vet Pathol
|date=1983-03
|volume=20
|issue=2
|pages=189-201
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> apocrine glands,<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Ahmed
|first=A.
|last2=Jones
|first2=A.W.
|url=https://www.academia.edu/5687437/APOCRINE_CYSTADENOMA_A_REPORT_OF_TWO_CASES_OCCURRING_ON_THE_PREPUCE
|title=Apocrine Cystadenoma: a report of two cases occurring on the prepuce
|journal=Br J Dermatol
|date=1969-12
|volume=81
|issue=12
|pages=899-901
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> and sebaceous glands,<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Hyman
|first=A.B.
|last2=Brownstein
|first2=M.H.
|title=Tyson's "glands": ectopic sebaceous glands and papillomatosis penis
|journal=Arch Dermatol
|date=1969-01
|volume=99
|issue=1
|pages=31-36
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Delbanco
|first=E.
|title=Über das gehäufte Auftreten von freien Talgdrüsen an der Innenfläche des Präputiums
|trans-title=About the increased occurrence of free sebaceous glands on the inner surface of the prepuce
|language=German
|journal=Monatshefte für praktische Dermatologie
|date=1904
|volume=38
|pages=536-538
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Piccinno
|first=R.
|last2=Carrel
|first2=C.-F.
|last3=Menni
|first3=S.
|etal=yes
|title=sebacous glands mimicking molluscum contagiosum
|journal=Acta Derm Venerol
|date=1990
|volume=70
|pages=344-345
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Krompecher
|first=St.
|title=Die Histologie der Absonderung des Smegma praeputii
|trans-title=Histology of allocation of a smegma praeputii
|language=German
|journal=Anatomischer Anzeiger
|date=1932
|volume=75
|pages=170-176
}}</ref>, collectively secrete emollient lubricants.<ref name="parkash-jeykumar1973"/> Apocrine glands perform a crucial function by secreting enzymes such as lysosomal enzymes, cathepsin B, chymotrypsin, and neutrophil elastase.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Frohlich
|first=E.
|last2=Shamburg-Lever
|first2=G.
|last3=Klesses
|first3=C.
|title=Immunelectron microscopic localization of cathepsin B in human apocrine glands
|journal=J Cutan Pathol
|date=1993-02
|volume=20
|issue=1
|pages=54-60
}}</ref>
There is also some research to suggest that lysozyme may protect against HIV infection.<ref>{{REFweb
|first=George
|last=Hill
|author-link=George Hill
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/HIV/hill1/
|title=Summary of evidence that the foreskin and lysozyme may protect against HIV infection
|date=2003-09-07
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> <ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998" />
Apocrine glands also produce cytokine,<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Ahmed
|first=A.A.
|last2=Nordlind
|first2=K.
|last3=Schultzberd
|first3=M.
|last4=Liden
|first4=S.
|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01105803
|title=Immunohistochemical localization of IL-1 alpha-, IL-1 beta-, IL-6- and TNF-alpha-like immunoreactivities in human apocrine glands
|journal=Arch Dermatol Res
|date=1995
|volume=287
|issue=8
|pages=764-766
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref> which is a very important non-antibody protein that generates immune response when in contact with specific agents. Plasma cells which increase in number in response to pathogens levels, secrete immunoglobulin.<ref name="flower1983"/>
It is also very important to note that Langerhans cells that are present in the foreskin produce ''Langerin'', a substance that has been proven to kill human immunodefiency viris (HIV) on contact.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=de Witte
|first=L.
|last2=Nabatov
|first2=A.
|last3=Pion
|first3=M.
|etal=yes
|url=http://www.cirp.org/news/healthday2007-03-05/
|title=Langerin is a natural barrier to HIV-1 transmission by Langerhans cells
|journal=Nat Med
|date=2007-03
|volume=13
|issue=3
|pages=367-371
|accessdate=2019-10-20
}}</ref>
All of these function to sequester and “digest” foreign pathogens. All these substances play an important role in protecting the penis from viral and bacterial pathogens. The immunological functions of the human prepuce have been extensively documented by respected researchers for quite some time.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998" />
<!--In infancy, simple sugars in breast milk, like antibacterial oligosaccharides, are acquired from the mother's milk and excreted in urine. University studies have shown that these substances cling to the mucosal lining of the inner foreskin and protect against urinary tract infections,<ref>Hanson LA, Karlsson B, Jalil F, ''et al''. Antiviral and antibacterial factors in human milk. In: Hanson LA, ed. ''Biology of Human Milk''. New York Raven Press; 1988. pp. 141-57</ref> as well as infections in other parts of the body.<ref>Coppa GV, Gabrielli O, Giorgi P, Catassi C, Montanari MP, Veraldo PE, Nichols BL. Preliminary study of breast feeding and bacterial adhesion to uroepithelial cells. ''Lancet'' 1990 Mar 10;335(8689):569-71.</ref> Babies excrete in their urine about 300-500 milligrams of oligosaccharides each day. These compounds prevent virulent strains of ''Escherichia coli'' from adhering to the mucosal lining of the entire urinary tract, including the foreskin and glans. For these reasons breast-milk is highly efficacious at preventing UTI.<ref>Gothefors L, Olling S, Winberg J. Breastfeeding and biological properties of faecal ''E. coli'' strains. ''Acta Paediatr Scand'' 1975 Nov;54(6):807-12.</ref> Rigorous studies have repeatedly demonstrated that breast feeding protects against urinary tract infections.<ref>Mårild S. Breastfeeding and Urinary Tract Infections. ''Lancet'' 1990;336:942.</ref> <ref>Pisacane A, ''et al''. Breastfeeding and urinary tract infection. ''The Lancet'', July 7, 1990, p50 </ref> <ref>Pisacane A, Graziano L, Mazzarella G, ''et al''. Breast-feeding and urinary tract infection. ''J Pediatr'' 1992;120:87-89.</ref>
Researchers have shown that premature foreskin retraction can expose the penis to hospital strains of ''Escherichia coli'' and can result in UTI.<ref>Winberg J ''et al''. The prepuce: A mistake of nature? ''Lancet'' 1989, pp.598-99.</ref> Hence the protective function of the foreskin is in the child's best interest, especially during chemically treated diaper wearing years where feces mixed with urine can not only contaminate the permanently exposed urinary meatus but also the amputation wound from the circumcision surgery itself.
It is important to note that women have a higher risk of UTI. This is because the shorter urethra offers less protection via the immunological function of the urethra's mucosal lining. By the same observation we see that the tubular tip of the foreskin and its mucosal lining act as an extension of the urethra, hence providing more of that same protection via mucosa immunology and the adherence of antibacterial substances in breast milk. Understandably, removal of the foreskin destroys all this functionality.-->
{{SEEALSO}}
* [[Circumcision and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)]]
{{REF}}
[[Kategorie:Physiologie]]
[[Kategorie:Immunologie]]
[[Kategorie:Vorhaut-Anatomie]]
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[[en:Immunological and protective function of the foreskin]]