Änderungen

There was little awareness of emotional and psychological issues when child circumcision was being promoted in the late 19th century and early 20th century. For example, [[Douglas Gairdner]] made no mention at all of pain, behavior changes, or psychological issues in his landmark 1949 paper.<ref name="fate1949">{{REFjournal

|last=Gairdner

|title=The fate of the foreskin: a study of circumcision

|journal=British Medical Journal

|last=Levy

|first=David

|author-link=

|etal=no

}}</ref>

<blockquote>

Ever since the discovery of the castration complex analysts have had ample opportunity in their therapeutic work to study the impact of surgical operations. on normal and abnormal development. By now it is common knowledge that surgical interference with the child's body may serve as the focal point for the activation, reactivation, grouping and rationalization of ideas of being attacked, overwhelmed and (or) castrated. … Ever since the discovery of the castration complex analysts have had ample opportunity in their therapeutic work to study the impact of surgical operations. on normal and abnormal development. By now it is common knowledge that surgical interference with the child's body may serve as the focal point for the activation, reactivation, grouping and rationalization of ideas of being attacked, overwhelmed and (or) castrated.<ref name="freud1952">{{REFjournal

|last=Freud

|first=Anna

|author-link=

|title=The role of bodily illness in the mental life of children

|last=Cansever

|first=Gocke

|author-link=

|etal=no

|last=Emde

|first=Robert M.

|author-link=

|last2=Harmon

|first2=Robert J.

|author2-link=

|last3=Metcalf

|first3=David

|author3-link=

|last4=Koenig

|first4=Kenneth L.

|author4-link=

|last5=Wagonfeld

|first5=Samuel

|author5-link=

|etal=no

The extent to which circumcision does contribute to gender differences in behavior during the neonatal period, or subsequently, obviously demands detailed and focused study. Most certainly, the published description of any sample using male neonates should indicate circumcision status. At present, with rare exception, this information does not appear in any account of subject characteristics.<ref>{{REFjournal

|last=Richards

|author-link=

|last2=Bernal

|author2-link=

|last3=Brackbill

|first3=Yvonne

|author3-link=

|etal=no

|last=Grimes

|first=David A.

|author-link=

|etal=no

Luther, Kraybill & Potter (1976) tested cortisol and cortisone in the blood of newborn infants before and after circumcision. Dramatic increases in cortisol and a lesser increase in cortisone was recorded.<ref name="luther1976">{{REFjournal

|last=Talbot

|author-link=

|last2=Kraybill

|author2-link=

|last3=Potter

|author3-link=

|etal=no

Rawlins, Miller & Engel (1980) investigated the blood oxygen content after [https://www.thefreedictionary.com/unanesthetized unanesthetized] non-therapeutic circumcision. They reported that blood oxygen content decreased during non-therapeutic neonatal circumcision, although it returned to baseline or above later.<ref name="rawlins-miller-engel1980">{{REFjournal

|last=Rawlins

|author-link=

|last2=Miller

|author2-link=

|last3=Engel

|author3-link=

|etal=no

Marshall ''et al''. (1980) tested newborn boys before and after plastibel circumcision. They reported that boys have a greater capacity for memory than previously believed, that infants behave differently after circumcision, that future researchers must consider and record the circumcision status of their subjects, and that boys might actually be feeling pain. They suggested that anesthesia by dorsal penile nerve block might be appropriate.<ref>{{REFjournal

|last=Marshall

|author-link=

|last2=Stratton

|author2-link=

|last3=Moore

|author3-link=

|etal=yes

|last=Gunnar

|first=Megan R.

|author-link

|last2=Fisch

|first2=Robert O.

|author2-link=

|last3=Korsvik

|first3=Sherry

|author3-link=

|last4=Donhowe

|first4=John M.

|author4-link=

|etal=no

Marshall ''et al''. (1982) studied the effect of circumcision on mother-child interaction (primarily breastmilk substitute feeding behavior) in a hospital setting. They reported: "The experimental group exhibited fewer intervals of uninterrupted feeding than did the control group."<ref name="marshall1982">{{REFjournal

|last=Marshall

|author-link=

|last2=Porter

|author2-link=

|last3=Rogers

|author3-link=

|last4=Moore

|author4-link=

|last5=Anderson

|author5-link=

|last6=Boxerman

|author6-link=

|etal=yes

The results showed that stimulating the newborn with the pacifier reduced crying by about 40%. Reducing crying, however, had no significant effect on adrenocortical response. Elevations of serum cortisol predicted average behavioral state following circumcision, whereas crying during circumcision did not. Furthermore, there was evidence that the neonatal adrenocortical system was sensitive in variations in surgical procedures. The results indicate the importance of obtaining data on both behavioral and hormonal systems in studies of stress and coping in human newborns.<ref name="gunnar1984">{{REFjournal

|last=Gunnar

|author-link=

|last2=Fisch

|author2-link=

|last3=Malone

|author3-link=

|etal=no

|last=Porter

|first=Fran Lang

|author-link=

|last2=Miller

|first2=Richard H.

|author2-link=

|last3=Marshall

|first3=Richard E.

|author3-link=

|etal=no

|last=Porter

|first=Fran Lang

|author-link=

|last2=Porges

|first2=Stephen W.

|author2-link=

|last3=Marshall

|first3=Richard E.

|author3-link=

|etal=no

Glover (1929) reported a case in which the memory of a traumatic circumcision was repressed.<ref name="glover1929">{{REFjournal

|last=Glover

|author-link=

|title=The ‘screening’ function of traumatic memories

|last=Taddio

|first=Anna

|author-link=

|last2=Goldbach

|first2=Morton

|author2-link=

|last3=Ipp

|first3=Moshe

|author3-link=

|last4=Stevens

|first4=Bonnie

|author4-link=

|last5=Koren

|first5=Gideon

|author5-link=

|etal=no

|last=Taddio

|first=Anna

|author-link=

|last2=Katz

|first2=Joel

|author2-link=

|last3=Ilersich

|author3-link=

|last4=Koren

|first4=Gideon

|author4-link=

|etal=no

|last=Chamberlain

|first=David

|author-link=

|etal=no

A traumatic experience is defined in DSM-IV as the direct consequence of experiencing or witnessing of serious injury or threat to physical integrity that produces intense fear, helplessness or (in the case of children) agitation (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The significant pain and distress described earlier is consistent with this definition. Moreover, the disturbance (e.g., physiological arousal, avoidant behaviour) qualifies for a diagnosis of acute stress disorder if it lasts at least two days or even a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) if it lasts more than a month. Circumcision without anaesthesia constitutes a severely traumatic event in a child's life.<ref name="boyle2002">{{REFjournal

|last=Boyle

|author-link=Gregory Boyle

|last2=Goldman

|first2=Ronald

|author2-link=Ronald Goldman

|last3=Svoboda

|first3=J. Steven

|author3-link=J. Steven Svoboda

|last4=Fernandez

|first4=Ephrem

|author4-link=

|etal=no

|last=van der Kolk

|first=Bessell

|author-link=

|etal=no

|last=Rhinehart

|first=John W.

|author-link=

|etal=no

|last=Goldman

|first=Ronald

|author-link=Ronald Goldman

|etal=no

|last=Brown

|first=Mark S.

|author-link=

|last2=Brown

|first2=Cheryl A.

|author2-link=

|etal=no

|last=Rediger

|first=Chris

|author-link=

|last2=Muller

|first2=Andries J.

|author2-link=

|etal=no

|last=LeBourdais

|first=Eleanor

|author-link=

|etal=No

|last=Goldman

|first=Ronald

|author-link=Ronald Goldman

|etal=no

Research done since the 1960's forward to the present day has elucidated the nature, functions, and purpose of the [[foreskin]]. Circumcised men are learning what they have lost from the Internet, so they are less able to maintain the ego defense of denial of loss,<ref name="watson2017">{{REFjournal

|last=Watson

|last2=Golden

|first2=Tom

|author2-link=

|etal=no

|last=Maguire

|first=Peter

|author-link=

|last2=Parkes

|first2=Colin Murray

|author2-link=

|etal=no

|last=Bollinger

|first=Dan

|author-link=Dan Bollinger

|last2=Van Howe

|first2=Robert S.

|author2-link=Robert S. Van Howe

|etal=no

|last=Frisch

|first=Morten

|author-link=

|last2=Simonsen

|first2=Jacob

|author2-link=

|etal=yes