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A '''urinary tract infection''', also commonly known as a '''UTI''', is a bacterial infection in the urinary tract (kidneys, ureters, bladder and/or urethra).  UTIs can affect both males and females, although, due to the difference in structures of the male and female urinary tract, infections occur most commonly in girls and women, as the urinary tract is shorter in females than it is in males. UTIs can become serious if undetected, and may lead to permanent kidney damage. However, they are easily and effectively treated with antibiotics.<ref name="ginsburg uti">{{REFjournal
A '''urinary tract infection''', also commonly known as a '''UTI''', is a bacterial infection in the urinary tract (kidneys, ureters, bladder and/or urethra).  UTIs can affect both males and females, although, due to the difference in structures of the male and female urinary tract, infections occur most commonly in girls and women, as the urinary tract is shorter in females than it is in males. UTIs can become serious if undetected, and may lead to permanent kidney damage. However, they are easily and effectively treated with antibiotics.<ref name="ginsburg uti">{{REFjournal
  |last=Ginsburg
  |last=Ginsburg
  |first=C.M.
  |init=CM
  |last2=McCracken
  |last2=McCracken
  |first2=G.H.
  |init2=GH
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/ginsburg/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/ginsburg/
  |title=Urinary tract infections in young infants
  |title=Urinary tract infections in young infants
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}}</ref><ref name="McCracken 1989">{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref name="McCracken 1989">{{REFjournal
  |last=McCracken
  |last=McCracken
  |first=G.H.
  |init=GH
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/mccracken/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/mccracken/
  |title=Options in antimicrobial management of urinary tract infections in infants and children
  |title=Options in antimicrobial management of urinary tract infections in infants and children
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UTIs are often caused by ''Escherichia coli'' (E. coli) bacteria, to which the infant has no passive immunity. In infant girls UTIs generally originate in the colon, whereas in infant boys they originate from the external environment, strongly suggesting that for boys such infections are iatrogenic.<ref>{{REFjournal
UTIs are often caused by ''Escherichia coli'' (E. coli) bacteria, to which the infant has no passive immunity. In infant girls UTIs generally originate in the colon, whereas in infant boys they originate from the external environment, strongly suggesting that for boys such infections are iatrogenic.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Maskell
  |last=Maskell
  |first=R.
  |init=R
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |title=Urinary Pathogens in the Male
  |title=Urinary Pathogens in the Male
Zeile 35: Zeile 35:
}}</ref> Although ''E. coli'' is one of the most common bacteria on the surface of human skin, strains found in hospitals tend to be particularly virulent. ''E. coli'' that live in the intestinal tract cause urinary tract infections when allowed to get into the sterile urinary tract. Whether intact or circumcised, baby boys sitting in poopy diapers allows ''E. coli'' an opportunity to enter the urinary tract. And, of course, fiddling with the foreskin and introducing bacteria foreign to the baby's body or his urinary tract can cause UTI, too. The tight [[foreskin]] of the infant boy acts as a sphincter to allow urine to flow out, but prevents contaminants and pathogens from coming in.<ref name="Fleiss 1998">{{REFjournal
}}</ref> Although ''E. coli'' is one of the most common bacteria on the surface of human skin, strains found in hospitals tend to be particularly virulent. ''E. coli'' that live in the intestinal tract cause urinary tract infections when allowed to get into the sterile urinary tract. Whether intact or circumcised, baby boys sitting in poopy diapers allows ''E. coli'' an opportunity to enter the urinary tract. And, of course, fiddling with the foreskin and introducing bacteria foreign to the baby's body or his urinary tract can cause UTI, too. The tight [[foreskin]] of the infant boy acts as a sphincter to allow urine to flow out, but prevents contaminants and pathogens from coming in.<ref name="Fleiss 1998">{{REFjournal
  |last=Fleiss
  |last=Fleiss
  |first=P.M.
  |init=PM
  |author-link=Paul M. Fleiss
  |author-link=Paul M. Fleiss
  |last2=Hodges
  |last2=Hodges
  |first2=F.M.
  |init2=FM
  |author2-link=Frederick M. Hodges
  |author2-link=Frederick M. Hodges
  |last3=Van Howe
  |last3=Van Howe
  |first3=RS
  |init3=RS
  |author3-link=Robert Van Howe
  |author3-link=Robert Van Howe
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/STD/fleiss3/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/STD/fleiss3/
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UTIs are usually associated with congenital abnormalities of the urinary tract.<ref name="ginsburg uti"/><ref>{{REFjournal
UTIs are usually associated with congenital abnormalities of the urinary tract.<ref name="ginsburg uti"/><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Amato
  |last=Amato
  |first=D.
  |init=D
  |last2=Garduno-Espinosa
  |last2=Garduno-Espinosa
  |first2=J.
  |init2=J
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/amato/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/amato/
  |title=Circumcision of the newborn male and the risk of urinary tract infection during the first year: A meta-analysis
  |title=Circumcision of the newborn male and the risk of urinary tract infection during the first year: A meta-analysis
Zeile 68: Zeile 68:
}}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Schlager
  |last=Schlager
  |first=T.A.
  |init=TA
  |last2=Hendley
  |last2=Hendley
  |first2=J.O.
  |init2=JO
  |last3=Dudley
  |last3=Dudley
  |first3=S.M.
  |init3=SM
  |last4=Hayden
  |last4=Hayden
  |first4=G.F.
  |init4=GF
  |last5=Lohr
  |last5=Lohr
  |first5=J.A.
  |init5=JA
  |title=Explanation for false-positive urine cultures obtained by bag technique
  |title=Explanation for false-positive urine cultures obtained by bag technique
  |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med
  |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med
Zeile 88: Zeile 88:
In infant boys, UTIs originate from the external environment, strongly suggesting that these infections are iatrogenically caused.<ref>{{REFjournal
In infant boys, UTIs originate from the external environment, strongly suggesting that these infections are iatrogenically caused.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Maskell
  |last=Maskell
  |first=R.
  |init=R
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |title=Urinary Pathogens in the Male
  |title=Urinary Pathogens in the Male
Zeile 96: Zeile 96:
}}</ref> Two interventions that put the male infant at immediate risk for UTIs are [[circumcision]], and [[forced retraction]] of the foreskin. These interventions tear away the synechia which binds the foreskin to the glans in male infants, thereby creating entry points for ''E. coli'' bacteria,<ref name="Winberg 1989">{{REFjournal
}}</ref> Two interventions that put the male infant at immediate risk for UTIs are [[circumcision]], and [[forced retraction]] of the foreskin. These interventions tear away the synechia which binds the foreskin to the glans in male infants, thereby creating entry points for ''E. coli'' bacteria,<ref name="Winberg 1989">{{REFjournal
  |last=Winberg
  |last=Winberg
  |first=J.
  |init=J
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/winberg-bollgren/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/winberg-bollgren/
Zeile 105: Zeile 105:
}}</ref> which binds to the glans penis of the infant.<ref name="Cunningham 1986">{{REFjournal
}}</ref> which binds to the glans penis of the infant.<ref name="Cunningham 1986">{{REFjournal
  |last=Cunningham
  |last=Cunningham
  |first=N.
  |init=N
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/cunningham/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/cunningham/
  |title=Circumcision and urinary tract infections (letter)
  |title=Circumcision and urinary tract infections (letter)
Zeile 115: Zeile 115:
}}</ref> Urinary tract infections (UTI) are a complication of circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref> Urinary tract infections (UTI) are a complication of circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Smith
  |last=Smith
  |first=R.M.
  |init=RM
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/smith1916/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/smith1916/
  |title=Recent contributions to the study of pyelitis in infancy
  |title=Recent contributions to the study of pyelitis in infancy
Zeile 124: Zeile 124:
}}</ref><ref name="Cohen 1992">{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref name="Cohen 1992">{{REFjournal
  |last=Cohen
  |last=Cohen
  |first=H.
  |init=H
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/cohen/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/cohen/
Zeile 133: Zeile 133:
}}</ref><ref name="Goldman 1996">{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref name="Goldman 1996">{{REFjournal
  |last=Goldman
  |last=Goldman
  |first=M.
  |init=M
  |last2=Barr
  |last2=Barr
  |first2=J.
  |init2=J
  |last3=Bistritzer
  |last3=Bistritzer
  |first3=T.
  |init3=T
  |last4=Aladjem
  |last4=Aladjem
  |first4=M.
  |init4=M
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/goldman/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/goldman/
  |title=Urinary tract infection following ritual jewish circumcision
  |title=Urinary tract infection following ritual jewish circumcision
Zeile 149: Zeile 149:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Prais
  |last=Prais
  |first=D.
  |init=D
  |last2=Shoov-Furman
  |last2=Shoov-Furman
  |first2=R.
  |init2=R
  |last3=Amir
  |last3=Amir
  |first3=J.
  |init3=J
  |title=Is circumcision a risk factor for neonatal urinary tract infections?
  |title=Is circumcision a risk factor for neonatal urinary tract infections?
  |journal=Arch Dis Child
  |journal=Arch Dis Child
Zeile 169: Zeile 169:
Recurrent UTIs are associated with congenital abnormalities of the upper urinary tract.<ref name="ginsburg uti"/><ref name="McCracken 1989"/><ref>Craig JC ''et al.'' [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/craig/ Effect of circumcision on incidence of urinary tract infection in preschool boys]. From the Department of Nephrology, Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children, Sydney, Australia.</ref><ref name="Mueller 1997">{{REFjournal
Recurrent UTIs are associated with congenital abnormalities of the upper urinary tract.<ref name="ginsburg uti"/><ref name="McCracken 1989"/><ref>Craig JC ''et al.'' [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/craig/ Effect of circumcision on incidence of urinary tract infection in preschool boys]. From the Department of Nephrology, Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children, Sydney, Australia.</ref><ref name="Mueller 1997">{{REFjournal
  |last=Mueller
  |last=Mueller
  |first=E.R.
  |init=ER
  |last2=Steinhardt
  |last2=Steinhardt
  |first2=G.
  |init2=G
  |last3=Naseer
  |last3=Naseer
  |first3=S.
  |init3=S
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/mueller/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/mueller/
  |title=The incidence of genitourinary abnormalities in circumcised and uncircumcised boys presenting with an initial urinary tract infection by 6 months of age
  |title=The incidence of genitourinary abnormalities in circumcised and uncircumcised boys presenting with an initial urinary tract infection by 6 months of age
Zeile 184: Zeile 184:
A recent study of mice indicates that p-fimbriated ''Escherichia Col''i, the organism responsible for about 85% of UTI, is capable of burrowing into the deeper tissue of the bladder<ref>{{REFjournal
A recent study of mice indicates that p-fimbriated ''Escherichia Col''i, the organism responsible for about 85% of UTI, is capable of burrowing into the deeper tissue of the bladder<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Berger
  |last=Berger
  |first=A.
  |init=A
  |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/317/7171/1473
  |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/317/7171/1473
  |title=Burrowing bacteria may explain recurrent urinary tract infections
  |title=Burrowing bacteria may explain recurrent urinary tract infections
Zeile 193: Zeile 193:
}}</ref> or forming pods,<ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref> or forming pods,<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Anderson
  |last=Anderson
  |first=G.G.
  |init=GG
  |last2=Palermo
  |last2=Palermo
  |first2=J.J.
  |init2=JJ
  |last3=Schilling
  |last3=Schilling
  |first3=J.D.
  |init3=JD
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/anderson1/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/anderson1/
Zeile 208: Zeile 208:
}}</ref> thus hiding from antibiotics.<ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref> thus hiding from antibiotics.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Berger
  |last=Berger
  |first=A.
  |init=A
  |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/317/7171/1473
  |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/317/7171/1473
  |title=Burrowing bacteria may explain recurrent urinary tract infections
  |title=Burrowing bacteria may explain recurrent urinary tract infections
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In the past it was claimed that UTI could lead to renal failure, however, new evidence has disproved this claim.<ref name="Sreenarasimhaiah 1998">{{REFjournal
In the past it was claimed that UTI could lead to renal failure, however, new evidence has disproved this claim.<ref name="Sreenarasimhaiah 1998">{{REFjournal
  |last=Sreenarasimhaiah
  |last=Sreenarasimhaiah
  |first=S.
  |init=S
  |last2=Hellerstein
  |last2=Hellerstein
  |first2=S.
  |init2=S
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/sreenarasimhaiah1/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/sreenarasimhaiah1/
  |title=Urinary tract infections per se do not cause end-stage kidney disease
  |title=Urinary tract infections per se do not cause end-stage kidney disease
Zeile 233: Zeile 233:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Lane
  |last=Lane
  |first=W.
  |init=W
  |last2=Robson
  |last2=Robson
  |first2=M.
  |init2=M
  |last3=Van Howe
  |last3=Van Howe
  |first3=R.S.
  |init3=RS
  |author3-link=Robert Van Howe
  |author3-link=Robert S. Van Howe
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/robson1/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/robson1/
  |title=Circumcisions: Again
  |title=Circumcisions: Again
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It was determined in the 1990s that breastfeeding plays a central role substantially reducing the incidence of UTIs.<ref name="Winberg 1989"/><ref>{{REFjournal
It was determined in the 1990s that breastfeeding plays a central role substantially reducing the incidence of UTIs.<ref name="Winberg 1989"/><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Pisacane
  |last=Pisacane
  |first=A.
  |init=A
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/pisacane/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/pisacane/
Zeile 265: Zeile 265:
}}</ref><ref name="Marild 1990">{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref name="Marild 1990">{{REFjournal
  |last=Mårild
  |last=Mårild
  |first=S.
  |init=S
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/marild/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/marild/
  |title=Breastfeeding and Urinary Tract Infections
  |title=Breastfeeding and Urinary Tract Infections
Zeile 274: Zeile 274:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Coppa
  |last=Coppa
  |first=J.V.
  |init=JV
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/coppa/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/coppa/
Zeile 284: Zeile 284:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Pisacane
  |last=Pisacane
  |first=A.
  |init=A
  |last2=Graziano
  |last2=Graziano
  |first2=L.
  |init2=L
  |last3=Mazzarella
  |last3=Mazzarella
  |first3=G.
  |init3=G
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/pisacane1992/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/pisacane1992/
Zeile 298: Zeile 298:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Mårild
  |last=Mårild
  |first=S.
  |init=S
  |last2=Hansson
  |last2=Hansson
  |first2=S.
  |init2=S
  |last3=Jodal
  |last3=Jodal
  |first3=U.
  |init3=U
  |last4=Oden
  |last4=Oden
  |first4=A.
  |init4=A
  |last5=Svedberg
  |last5=Svedberg
  |first5=K.
  |init5=K
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/marild4/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/marild4/
  |title=Protective effect of breastfeeding against urinary tract infection
  |title=Protective effect of breastfeeding against urinary tract infection
Zeile 316: Zeile 316:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Hanson
  |last=Hanson
  |first=L.Å.
  |init=LÅ
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/marild4/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/marild4/
  |title=Protective effects of breastfeeding against urinary tract infection
  |title=Protective effects of breastfeeding against urinary tract infection
Zeile 326: Zeile 326:
}}</ref> Outerbridge points out that breastfeeding is very effective in reducing incidence of UTI in both boys and girls.<ref name="Outerbridge 1998">{{REFjournal
}}</ref> Outerbridge points out that breastfeeding is very effective in reducing incidence of UTI in both boys and girls.<ref name="Outerbridge 1998">{{REFjournal
  |last=Outerbridge
  |last=Outerbridge
  |first=E.W.
  |init=EW
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/outerbridge/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/outerbridge/
  |title=Decreasing the risk of urinary tract infections (Letter)
  |title=Decreasing the risk of urinary tract infections (Letter)
Zeile 340: Zeile 340:
Rooming-in permits colonization of the infant's skin and mucosa with the mother's own bacteria. The prepuce and other skin and mucosa of the infant should be specifically brought into contact with the mother's own skin to pass along her flora and initiate the child's natural immunity.<ref>{{REFjournal
Rooming-in permits colonization of the infant's skin and mucosa with the mother's own bacteria. The prepuce and other skin and mucosa of the infant should be specifically brought into contact with the mother's own skin to pass along her flora and initiate the child's natural immunity.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Gothefors
  |last=Gothefors
  |first=L.
  |init=L
  |last2=Olling
  |last2=Olling
  |first2=S.
  |init2=S
  |last3=Winberg
  |last3=Winberg
  |first3=J.
  |init3=J
  |title=Breast feeding and biological properties of faecal ''E. coli'' strains
  |title=Breast feeding and biological properties of faecal ''E. coli'' strains
  |journal=Acta Paediatr Scand
  |journal=Acta Paediatr Scand
Zeile 367: Zeile 367:
In a determined search for an association between the presence of the foreskin and UTI, Wiswell et al retrospectively examined charts of a number of boys born at U.S. military hospitals.<ref>{{REFjournal
In a determined search for an association between the presence of the foreskin and UTI, Wiswell et al retrospectively examined charts of a number of boys born at U.S. military hospitals.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Wiswell
  |last=Wiswell
  |first=T.E.
  |init=TE
  |last2=Smith
  |last2=Smith
  |first2=F.R.
  |init2=FR
  |last3=Bass
  |last3=Bass
  |first3=J.W.
  |init3=JW
  |title=Decreased incidence of urinary tract infections in circumcised male infants
  |title=Decreased incidence of urinary tract infections in circumcised male infants
  |journal=Pediatrics
  |journal=Pediatrics
Zeile 379: Zeile 379:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Wiswell
  |last=Wiswell
  |first=T.E.
  |init=TE
  |title=Circumcision and urinary tract infections
  |title=Circumcision and urinary tract infections
  |journal=Pediatrics
  |journal=Pediatrics
Zeile 387: Zeile 387:
}}</ref><ref name="Wiswell 1986">{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref name="Wiswell 1986">{{REFjournal
  |last=Wiswell
  |last=Wiswell
  |first=T.E.
  |init=TE
  |last2=Roscelli
  |last2=Roscelli
  |first2=J.D.
  |init2=JD
  |title=Corroborative evidence for the decreased incidence of urinary tract infection in circumcised male infants
  |title=Corroborative evidence for the decreased incidence of urinary tract infection in circumcised male infants
  |journal=Pediatrics
  |journal=Pediatrics
Zeile 397: Zeile 397:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Wiswell
  |last=Wiswell
  |first=T.E.
  |init=TE
  |last2=Enzenauer
  |last2=Enzenauer
  |first2=R.W.
  |init2=RW
  |last3=Holton
  |last3=Holton
  |first3=M.E.
  |init3=ME
  |last4=Cornish
  |last4=Cornish
  |first4=J.D.
  |init4=JD
  |last5=Hankins
  |last5=Hankins
  |first5=C.T.
  |init5=CT
  |title=Declining frequency of circumcision: implications for changes in the absolute incidence and male to female sex ratio of urinary tract infections in early infancy
  |title=Declining frequency of circumcision: implications for changes in the absolute incidence and male to female sex ratio of urinary tract infections in early infancy
  |journal=Pediatrics
  |journal=Pediatrics
Zeile 413: Zeile 413:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Wiswell
  |last=Wiswell
  |first=T.E.
  |init=TE
  |last2=Geschke
  |last2=Geschke
  |first2=D.W.
  |init2=DW
  |title=Risks from circumcision during the first month of life compared with those for uncircumcised boys
  |title=Risks from circumcision during the first month of life compared with those for uncircumcised boys
  |journal=Pediatrics
  |journal=Pediatrics
Zeile 423: Zeile 423:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Wiswell
  |last=Wiswell
  |first=T.E.
  |init=TE
  |title=Routine neonatal circumcision: a reappraisal
  |title=Routine neonatal circumcision: a reappraisal
  |journal=Am Fam Physician
  |journal=Am Fam Physician
Zeile 431: Zeile 431:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Wiswell
  |last=Wiswell
  |first=T.E.
  |init=TE
  |last2=Hachey
  |last2=Hachey
  |first2=W.E.
  |init2=WE
  |title=Urinary tract infections and the uncircumcised state: an update
  |title=Urinary tract infections and the uncircumcised state: an update
  |journal=Clin Pediatr (Phila)
  |journal=Clin Pediatr (Phila)
Zeile 447: Zeile 447:
The problem began with Ginsburg and McCracken's study, which failed to notice that Parkland Hospital had made it hospital policy not to perform non-therapeutic circumcisions in neonates,<ref>{{REFjournal
The problem began with Ginsburg and McCracken's study, which failed to notice that Parkland Hospital had made it hospital policy not to perform non-therapeutic circumcisions in neonates,<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Wallerstein
  |last=Wallerstein
  |first=E.
  |init=E
|author-link=Edward Wallerstein
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/general/wallerstein/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/general/wallerstein/
  |title=Circumcision: the uniquely American medical enigma
  |title=Circumcision: the uniquely American medical enigma
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*Littlewood (1972) found an association of UTI with maternal infection, perinatal anoxia, and high or low birthweight.<ref>{{REFjournal
*Littlewood (1972) found an association of UTI with maternal infection, perinatal anoxia, and high or low birthweight.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Littlewood
  |last=Littlewood
  |first=J.M.
  |init=JM
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/littlewood1/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/littlewood1/
  |title=Infants with urinary tract infection in first month of life
  |title=Infants with urinary tract infection in first month of life
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*The Wiswell studies considered bacteriuria as diagnostic of UTI. However, a positive urine culture alone is not necessarily indicative of symptomatic UTI requiring treatment.<ref>{{REFjournal
*The Wiswell studies considered bacteriuria as diagnostic of UTI. However, a positive urine culture alone is not necessarily indicative of symptomatic UTI requiring treatment.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Schlager
  |last=Schlager
  |first=T.A.
  |init=TA
  |last2=Hendley
  |last2=Hendley
  |first2=J.O.
  |init2=JO
  |last3=Dudley
  |last3=Dudley
  |first3=S.M.
  |init3=SM
  |last4=Hayden
  |last4=Hayden
  |first4=G.F.
  |init4=GF
  |last5=Lohr
  |last5=Lohr
  |first5=J.A.
  |init5=JA
  |title=Explanation for false-positive urine cultures obtained by bag technique
  |title=Explanation for false-positive urine cultures obtained by bag technique
  |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med
  |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med
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*The hospital chart data used in the retrospective studies are unreliable. Hospitals frequently omit to record a circumcision on a baby's chart. In Atlanta, O'Brien found that circumcision was recorded only 84.3% of the time for circumcised boys.<ref>{{REFjournal
*The hospital chart data used in the retrospective studies are unreliable. Hospitals frequently omit to record a circumcision on a baby's chart. In Atlanta, O'Brien found that circumcision was recorded only 84.3% of the time for circumcised boys.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=O'Brien
  |last=O'Brien
  |first=T.R.
  |init=TR
  |last2=Calle
  |last2=Calle
  |first2=E.E.
  |init2=EE
  |last3=Poole
  |last3=Poole
  |first3=W.K.
  |init3=WK
  |title=Incidence of neonatal circumcision in Atlanta, 1985-1986
  |title=Incidence of neonatal circumcision in Atlanta, 1985-1986
  |journal=Southern Medical Journal
  |journal=Southern Medical Journal
Zeile 505: Zeile 506:
}}</ref> If the records used in the retrospective bacteriuria studies are similarly inaccurate, then a statistically significant number of the infants with bacteriuria that were claimed to be intact were, in fact, circumcised. This would naturally overstate the rate of infection in intact boys.<ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref> If the records used in the retrospective bacteriuria studies are similarly inaccurate, then a statistically significant number of the infants with bacteriuria that were claimed to be intact were, in fact, circumcised. This would naturally overstate the rate of infection in intact boys.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Van Howe
  |last=Van Howe
  |first=R.S.
  |init=RS
  |author-link=Robert Van Howe
  |author-link=Robert S. Van Howe
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/vanhowe/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/vanhowe/
  |title=To the Editor
  |title=To the Editor
Zeile 522: Zeile 523:
Wiswell's sensational statistic, that circumcision resulted in a "ten to hundred times decrease in urinary tract infections in circumcised boys," has often been quoted; however, it is misleading. In fact, UTIs are so rare in either case that,even giving Wiswell's data the benefit of the doubt, 50 to 100 healthy boys would have to be circumcised in order to prevent a UTI from developing in only one patient. Using more recent data from a better-controlled study, the number of unnecessary operations needed to prevent one hospital admission for UTI would jump to 195.<ref>{{REFjournal
Wiswell's sensational statistic, that circumcision resulted in a "ten to hundred times decrease in urinary tract infections in circumcised boys," has often been quoted; however, it is misleading. In fact, UTIs are so rare in either case that,even giving Wiswell's data the benefit of the doubt, 50 to 100 healthy boys would have to be circumcised in order to prevent a UTI from developing in only one patient. Using more recent data from a better-controlled study, the number of unnecessary operations needed to prevent one hospital admission for UTI would jump to 195.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=To
  |last=To
  |first=T.
  |init=T
  |last2=Agha
  |last2=Agha
  |first2=M.
  |init2=M
  |last3=Dick
  |last3=Dick
  |first3=P.T.
  |init3=PT
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/to2/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/to2/
Zeile 540: Zeile 541:
A number of studies in post-circumcision UTIs, and the role of the surgery in possibly facilitating UTIs, were not able to recommend neonatal circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
A number of studies in post-circumcision UTIs, and the role of the surgery in possibly facilitating UTIs, were not able to recommend neonatal circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Altschul
  |last=Altschul
  |first=M.S.
  |init=MS
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/altschul1990/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/altschul1990/
  |title=The circumcision controversy (editorial)
  |title=The circumcision controversy (editorial)
Zeile 549: Zeile 550:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Thompson
  |last=Thompson
  |first=R.S.
  |init=RS
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/thompson/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/thompson/
  |title=Does circumcision prevent urinary tract infection? An opposing view
  |title=Does circumcision prevent urinary tract infection? An opposing view
Zeile 558: Zeile 559:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Bollgren
  |last=Bollgren
  |first=I.
  |init=I
  |last2=Winberg
  |last2=Winberg
  |first2=J.
  |init2=J
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/winberg-bollgren2/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/winberg-bollgren2/
  |title=Rebuttal of Edgar J. Schoen
  |title=Rebuttal of Edgar J. Schoen
Zeile 569: Zeile 570:
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Chessare
  |last=Chessare
  |first=J.B.
  |init=JB
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/chessare/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/chessare/
  |title=Circumcision: Is the Risk of Urinary Tract Infection Really the Pivotal Issue?
  |title=Circumcision: Is the Risk of Urinary Tract Infection Really the Pivotal Issue?
Zeile 580: Zeile 581:
}}</ref> Significantly, a number of recent Israeli studies have reported an increase in urinary tract infection rates in the period following ritual circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref> Significantly, a number of recent Israeli studies have reported an increase in urinary tract infection rates in the period following ritual circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Amir
  |last=Amir
  |first=J.
  |init=J
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/513140
  |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/513140
Zeile 590: Zeile 591:
}}</ref><ref name="Cohen 1992"/><ref name="Goldman 1996"/><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref name="Cohen 1992"/><ref name="Goldman 1996"/><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Van Howe
  |last=Van Howe
  |first=R.S.
  |init=RS
  |author-link=Robert Van Howe
  |author-link=Robert S. Van Howe
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/vanhowe_uti2005/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/vanhowe_uti2005/
  |title=Effect of confounding in the association between circumcision status and urinary tract infection
  |title=Effect of confounding in the association between circumcision status and urinary tract infection
Zeile 601: Zeile 602:
}}</ref> In a prospective study, Kayaba et al. found a zero incidence of UTI in 603 intact boys, over a range of ages.<ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref> In a prospective study, Kayaba et al. found a zero incidence of UTI in 603 intact boys, over a range of ages.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Kayaba
  |last=Kayaba
  |first=H.
  |init=H
  |etal=yes
  |etal=yes
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/normal/kayaba/
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/normal/kayaba/
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